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Course Planning and Teaching

 

Planning and Design

Many college teachers use a simple, content-centered planning model. The operative planning questions are:

This model provides no guidelines for selecting the content to be covered, and it is obviously impossible to include all the material that is relevant to a given course. Teachers often have difficulty with this problem, particularly in new courses, and one of the most common student complaints about college courses is that they try to cover too much material. This focus on content can also lead to an emphasis on learning factual information rather than mastering higher-level thinking skills. Research has shown that retention of factual content beyond the final exam is minimal; most of it is lost within a few weeks. Of course, factual content that the student continues to use in other classes does tend to be retained, but this kind of repetition usually occurs only in the student's major. Think about undergraduate courses you took in fields unrelated to your current discipline and ask yourself how much factual content you can recall today.

By contrast, the planning model presented in this section focuses on the student rather than on the content. The operative planning questions are:

This model addresses content mastery and the intellectual skills that students should have when they finish the course. It shifts the responsibility for learning back on the student because planning decisions are made on the basis of activities that students must perform. It also makes selection of material easier, since course goals dictate the content that will be included. Moreover, students tend to remember factual details longer if the facts are associated with higher-order thinking processes such as problem-solving, analysis, and critical thinking. This model can be applied to the design of any kind of instruction, from single lectures to entire curricula, and many teachers have reported that they have used it to improve their presentations at professional conferences.

 

How to Begin

It's best to start planning your course several months ahead of the semester in which it is taught. Good planning requires thought and reflection, and mundane details often require long lead times: ordering textbooks, requesting films, getting copyright clearance for duplicated materials, and typing and duplicating course handouts. But even if you are asked to teach a course on short notice, you should try to follow as many of the planning guidelines as possible.

Most faculty members and some teaching assistants are completely responsible for designing the courses they teach, but some departments require that certain courses follow guidelines that insure uniformity of instruction. If you are a TA, you may inherit a course that someone else has planned and taught. Even in cases where you must conform to a previous plan, you can still use these guidelines to modify the course to suit your interests and needs. It is certainly easier and less time-consuming to adapt a well-planned course than to develop one from scratch. Remember too, that no teacher--even the best--will create a great course on the first try. As a matter of fact, some instructors feel that you must teach a course at least three times before it really works well.

 

The Basic Planning Model

We have created a set of questions for you to consider at each stage of the course planning process. This list covers the most important elements of course design.

  1. What is the place of this course in the curriculum? Is it a prerequisite for higher-level courses? If so, what do incoming students in these higher courses need to know? Is the course peripheral to the departmental curriculum? If so, what purpose is it supposed to serve? Where does the course fit in the overall education of the students? Answering these questions will help you define the course goals.

  2. What kinds of skills and levels of knowledge can you expect of students who register for the class? What level of performance can you expect from them? It is helpful to talk to experienced faculty about the typical UNC undergraduate's capabilities and achievement level--for example, the average incoming freshmen reads at an eleventh-grade level.

  3. Given their incoming skills and knowledge, how do you want students to "be different" by the end of the course? Specifically, what skills and knowledge should they be able to demonstrate, and how will you measure their achievement of these goals? (In the next section, you will find a useful system for identifying goals and objectives, and subsequent sections provide tips on testing and grading.)

  4. What themes, fundamental principles, or synthesizing ideas does the course involve? For example, a course in art history might have a particular approach to interpreting works of art that is used throughout; a course in anthropology could use ethnocentrism as a theme. These elements can serve as unifying themes for the entire body of material; they become the threads which hold the course together for the students.

  5. What are the major instructional units into which the course naturally divides? If there are no natural divisions, what logical and convenient divisions can be imposed on the course? It is important to break material into chunks so that students can more easily assimilate it. Without some subdivisions, a course may be too complex for the average student to comprehend.

  6. What kinds of learning experiences seem appropriate for students to master the course goals and objectives? What textbooks, monographs, or other reading materials are available, at what level are they written, and how closely do they match your conception of the course goals and objectives? (For further help, read the section entitled "Textbooks, Manuals, and Readings.") Are there films or videotapes that explain some topics better than you could in a lecture? Are there individuals whose expertise in certain areas would make them ideal guest speakers? Would your students learn some things better if they took a field trip to a local site? How will you involve students actively in their learning, both inside and outside of the classroom? (See the section on active learning strategies.)
  7. How will you evaluate student achievement of objectives? Evaluation methods should be appropriate to the objectives and need to be planned when you design the course. (The section on testing and grading will help you make these kinds of decisions.)

Focus of the Course

Your answers to the first four questions above will help you determine the focus and outcomes of the course. In most math, science, language, and physical education courses, the outcomes are well-defined: students must be able to work certain kinds of problems, solve specific equations, read and speak a language at a particular level of mastery, or demonstrate certain physical skills. In these courses planning is simplified because the place of the course in the curriculum and the learning outcomes are generally agreed upon. On the other hand, departmental curricula may not be revised often enough to meet changes in the undergraduate population, and this may mean that course outcomes are inappropriate for the needs of current students.

By contrast, course goals in the social sciences and humanities are usually not as easily defined. What should students be able to do, to know, or to understand when they finish a survey course in history, music, art, anthropology, sociology, or philosophy? These courses require the teacher to think carefully about the meaning of these areas of knowledge for the lives and education of undergraduates. If they never take another course in your field, what would you want them to know about it? Of course, there is no single, objective answer to that question--not only will specialists in your field disagree, but the answer will vary from department to department and from institution to institution.

Defining goals and objectives is indispensable to course planning. For convenience, we will make a distinction between goals, which are general statements of the aims of the course, and objectives, which are more specific statements of the purposes of individual units or lessons. In writing goals and objectives, remember that they do not describe what the teacher is going to do; they describe what the students are going to learn. One way to focus planning on learning outcomes is to ask yourself how you want the students to be different by the end of the course. Do you want them to have some of the skills that professionals in your field share, at least at a rudimentary level? Do you want them to be able to interpret phenomena in a special way? With what intellectual skills should they leave the course? You might also consider non-cognitive goals (How will the students' attitudes change over the course of the semester?), since attitudinal goals may be as important as cognitive goals in some courses.

 

Compare the two statements of course goals given below. Which statement provides more information to the students? Which one seems to be a clearer guide to the concepts covered in the course? Which one provides a better framework from which to plan the rest of the course?

Example A

Sociology 112--Social Stratification

The focus of this course is on contemporary social stratification in the United States. However, we will also cover the historical development of stratification, different theoretical perspectives on the origins of social equality, stratification in communist societies, and theories of world stratification.

Example B

Sociology 10--American Society

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:

  1. Recognize and define the basic concepts of society and the ways in which sociologists use these concepts in constructing explanations for individual and group problems.
  2. Explain how American institutions are maintained or changed by individuals or groups in society.
  3. Analyze a selected number of American institutions using the basic concepts and theories of the sociological perspective.
  4. Analyze selected past, present, and future problems of American institutions using the knowledge you have gained in 1, 2, and 3, above.

If you state your course goals in terms of student performance, as in Example B, you will have a much better foundation on which to build the course. You can then work backward from these goals to select material that is most appropriate for achieving them.

 

Course Themes

Some courses have themes, principles, or fundamental postulates that lend continuity and provide perspectives on the entire course. These themes will provide convenient intellectual pegs on which to hang concepts and other course material. In an Anthropology course, a teacher articulated several themes: the difference between nature and culture in Western thought; the relation between Western cultural values and other cultural values; the interaction between environment and culture and its effect on behavior.

The teacher referred to one or more of these themes in each class, providing students with a way to organize and discuss the course concepts. In some courses, a model of analysis can be used in the same way. The model is introduced at the beginning of the course and used throughout as students explore the content.

 

Planning for Instruction

The last three questions in the planning model above relate to the next stage of course design, which involves dividing the course into manageable pieces, choosing activities for each class, providing for quizzes and exams, and integrating these elements into a coherent whole. The major and minor divisions of the course should follow a logical order that can be easily grasped by students. The breaks between divisions provide natural points for quizzes and exams and allow students to synthesize course material in manageable pieces. Sometimes the textbook dictates the order and sequence of these divisions, as in some math, chemistry, or language courses. Courses that follow a linear historical survey will usually have natural breaks in the narrative, and courses that are organized topically can be divided by topic. It is wise to avoid using a textbook that presents material in a sequence that differs widely from your course plan, but if you must use such a book, provide careful instructions for students to minimize confusion. Starting with major instructional units, decide how many days to devote to each one, and list the readings associated with each unit. Once you have worked out the larger units, divide them into individual class sessions.

Once you have decided on the major and minor divisions, you can block out the semester's activities. You will need an official university calendar for the semester in which you will be teaching. If you don't receive one in the mail, check with your department secretary for a copy. The calendar specifies the first and last class days and final exam days, indicates holidays and other events that might affect class schedules, and specifies deadlines for drop-add, grade reports, and similar items. Try to avoid having sessions on related material span major holidays. Remember, too, that major exams will take entire class periods to administer, and it is a good idea not to schedule them for the day before or the day after a major calendar break. Most teachers try to give some kind of test or graded assignment before the drop-add deadline, which is six weeks from the start of the semester, so students can drop the class if they are not doing well. If you count the number of hours that you will actually be in the classroom, you will probably find that the total is less than 40. In other words, you must teach the entire course in what amounts to a single standard work-week.

When you have blocked out the course and are satisfied that its parts are well-integrated, you will be ready to consider the objectives for each class period. Think of each class as having three elements: objectives, methods, and evaluation. It is helpful to create a table for each class as in Figure 1 (below), to plan for each of these elements. This procedure pre-empts the impulse to sit down and automatically write lectures for each class session. Some course material may be appropriately taught via lectures, but if you consider the objectives for the day, you may decide that class discussion (or a formal debate or homework assignment) would be a more appropriate and effective method. You can then write "class discussion" under the methods column and make notes about how to prepare students for the discussion and how you might conduct the exercise. You may decide that students will need several different activities to master the objectives. For example, a short lecture might be followed by an in-class writing assignment, a guided discussion on the reading, followed by a short summarization lecture at the end of class. (Assigned readings and homework exercises can be used to get students to master some objectives outside of class--remember, class time is limited and very precious.)

Figure 1: Instructional Planning Chart

Lesson on Stratification and Social Mobility

Objectives

Students will be able to:

Teaching Methods

Before class

Answer questions in study guide handout, based on the reading assignment in chapters 12 and 13 of the textbook.

In class

Fifteen minute mini-lecture on the four systems of stratification.

Twenty-minute class discussion on U.S. social policies designed to reduce poverty (based on questions in study guide and readings for today's class). Five-minute summary of important issues raised in the discussion.

Two student presentations to compare and contrast Marx's and Weber's view of class. (20 min.)

Fifteen minute mini-lecture on Functionalist and Conflict approaches to stratification.

Evaluation

Essay questions on Mid-term: the four systems of social stratification, comparison of Marxian and Weberian views on class, comparison of Functionalist and Conflict approaches.

Short quiz next class on elements of U.S. social policy raised in class discussions.

 

The taxonomy in Figure 2 is useful for this stage of planning because it provides clear distinctions between lower and higher levels of learning. We include the taxonomy here because it will help you select the outcomes you desire. Don't worry about whether a particular objective falls under application or analysis, just use the list as a guide for your planning. For example, if you find that most of your objectives fall in the lower end of the taxonomy, ask yourself whether some higher-level objectives might also be appropriate. In the content-centered method of course planning, teachers tend to emphasize recall and comprehension, but most teachers would prefer to emphasize the upper levels (synthesis and evaluation). There are other systems for classifying learning outcomes, but this one has been used in psychology and education for many years, and it is simple and easy to understand.

Figure 2: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

 

  1. Knowledge: The recall of specifics and universals, involving little more than bringing to mind the appropriate material.

    Examples:

    1. Define the term "short term memory."
    2. Identify the five major Prophets of the Old Testament.
    3. Who won the battle of Waterloo?
    4. Write the equation for the Ideal Gas Law.
    5. What are the five sections of a research report?
    6. List the characteristics peculiar to the Cubist movement.
    7. What are gram-positive bacteria?

       

  2. Comprehension: The ability to process knowledge on a low level such that the knowledge can be reproduced or communicated without verbatim repetition.

    Examples:

    1. From a "story problem" description, set up the mathematical manipulation needed to solve the problem.
    2. Describe in prose what is shown in graph form.
    3. In one sentence give the point of a written passage.
    4. From a blueprint describe the article depicted.
    5. Given an experimental paradigm, state the question to be asked.
    6. Translate the following paragraph from Der Spiegel into good English.

       

     

  3. Application: The use of abstractions in concrete situations.

    Examples:

    1. Relate the principle of reinforcement to classroom interactions.
    2. Describe an experiment to answer the question of the effects of weight on the fall of an object.
    3. Determine the centroid of a plane figure.
    4. Write a short poem in iambic pentameter.
    5. Train a rat to press a bar.
    6. Apply shading to produce depth in a drawing.
    7. Reduce the following circuit by Thevenin's theorem and find the current.

     

  4. Analysis: The breakdown of a situation into its component parts.

    Examples:

    1. Identify the assumptions underlying a geometric proof.
    2. Given an argument for the abolition of guns, enumerate the positive and negative points presented.
    3. Analyze the following oscillator circuit and determine the frequency of oscillation.
    4. Given a research design, identify the predictor and criterion variables and the constraints on external and internal validity.
    5. Evaluate the reliability of the following vapor-liquid equilibrium data using the Gibbs-Duhem equation.

       

  5. The putting together of elements and parts to form a whole.

    Examples:

    1. Write a logically organized argument in favor of a given position.
    2. Given a set of data derive a hypothesis to explain them.
    3. Given two opposing theories design an experiment to compare them.
    4. Design an overhead condenser for a distillation column which will condense 75.0 percent of the vapor. Specify number and size of tubes, flow rate of cooling water required, and control equipment for maintaining necessary pressure in shell-side of container.
    5. Construct an original work which incorporates five common materials in sculpture.
    6. Write a short story relating a personal experience in the style of a picaresque novel.

       

  6. Evaluation: The making of judgments about the value of material/methods.

    Examples:

    1. Given an argument on any position, enumerate the logical fallacies in that argument.
    2. Given the data available on a research question, take a position and defend it.
    3. Given any research study, evaluate the appropriateness of the conclusions reached based on the data presented.
    4. In a given clinical situation, select the most reasonable intervention and predict the main effects and possible side effects.
    5. Evaluate a work of art, giving reasons in your evaluation.
    6. On the basis of operating data for the past six months, decide whether the company should buy steel used in our manufacturing process from Company A or Company B.

The sample objectives in Figure 1 are stated in such a way that their evaluation is clearly implied. On your planning chart, the evaluation column is for notes about the specific kind of evaluation you will use for each objective. For example, you may decide that some measurement of class participation is an appropriate evaluation of an objective, or you may sketch out a short quiz or list of possible essay questions for a major exam. Whatever form the evaluation takes, it should clearly measure the objectives for the session.

This planning format helps you focus classroom activities on specific learning outcomes, to entertain a variety of instructional strategies, and to consider appropriate methods of evaluation at the initial planning stage (rather than after you have taught the material). This format can also be applied to planning a single lecture, demonstration, or other individual unit of instruction.

As you look over your work at this point, check the "flow" of the course. For example, be sure that sections of the course fit together well and that you have provided ways for your students to understand these connections. Short lectures are useful for providing an overview of an upcoming unit, and they can be supplemented by short class exercises in which you ask the students to look over the next unit and identify the connections between the new material and previous units.

This is also a good time to check the length and sequence of readings and how they relate to class activities. If you simply lecture on the reading assignments, students quickly learn that they don't need to come to class or that they don't need to do the reading. On the other hand, if you fail to relate reading material to class activities, students will be confused about the importance and relevance of the readings. Reading material should be illuminated in class so that students understand the context of the material and perceive its relationship to the course. Exercises that require students to use material from the reading can be very effective for this kind of integration. You can tell you haven't succeeded in this regard when students ask questions such as "How much of this reading will be on the exam?," "Do you just want us to get the general point from the reading or do you want us to memorize facts?," or "Do I need to read it for class on the assigned day or just before the exam?" You should also ask yourself how well you have clarified relationships among other course activities--written exercises, exams and quizzes, homework assignments, topical discussions, or lectures. A well-designed course is a carefully crafted network of ideas. Students should not have to guess why they are reading a particular book or writing a particular paper; nor should they waste time or suffer needless anxiety trying to fathom the instructor's intentions.

Now that you have read about the process of course development, you can decide how much of it you can use in your teaching situation. Sometimes faculty members and TAs are assigned courses at the last minute and don't have much time for planning, but if you find yourself in this situation you can still use elements of the planning model. For example, you might work on course units that occur late in the semester, or as you teach, make notes about how you will alter the course in subsequent semesters.

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Last updated: January 30, 2001